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designing for cleaner textiles
Manchester Metropolitan University Jo Heeley is a PhD Research Student at Manchester Metropolitan University. Jo is also involved in lecturing and, studio teaching on 'eco-design' projects. She is Chair of the Textile Environmental Network (TEN), a group formed in November 1993 to provide and exchange information relating to the environmental impact of textiles and their production.
Research findings suggest that if textiles are to be produced in a more holistic way, every aspect of the design and manufacturing process must be integrated. Much of the environmental impact of a product is determined at the design stage when selecting materials and manufacturing processes, but designers are often remote from the ecological consequences of their specifications. Some methods which could enable environmental concerns to be incorporated into the design decision-making process are suggested. introduction The awareness of the environmental damage caused by textile production has provoked a different response from the textile industry than from the fashion industry 4. The textile industry has had to address pollution caused by the 'processing' of textiles, in most cases as a direct response to pressures from environmental legislation. The fashion industry, on the other hand, has focused on the 'product' itself. 'Green' textile and fashion products have appeared in designer collections, exclusive fashion stores and more recently in high street shops. What has resulted in these two different approaches is 'an apparent division between the producers of textiles on the one hand, and the clothing industry on the other.' 5 the 'greening' of fashion The start of this research project coincided with a widespread reaction against the perceived excesses of the 1980s. Whilst this first occurred as a submerged current, its most visible manifestation was perhaps to be seen in fashion in Autumn 1989, with Rifat Ozbek's collection in white.This collection seemed to capture the 'zeitgeist', symbolising the start of a 'New Age' as 'selfish obsessions with image and personal style [were] eclipsed by a broader concern about global and environmental issues.' 6 These 'eco-friendly' garments were predominantly white and evolved around the theme of innocence, purity and spiritual freedom.Yet little consideration was given to the process of bleaching, used to create an even white colour, and its associated environmental impacts 7. Even though there is opposition to bleaching , the colour white remains acceptable because it is seen as a 'pure' colour. Seemingly designers do not always understand the manufacturing processes, and they appear unaware of the negative effects on the environment caused by their design decisions. Manufacturers ,by contrast ,see designers as a weak link in improving environmental performance 8 because of their lack of knowledge of pollution problems. By 1992, the natural 'eco-look' was mainstream fashion. Designers continued to take their inspiration and colour palette from our natural surroundings. Unbleached and organic fabrics such as cotton, linen and silk, in natural, earthy tones became popular. Natural fibres and dyes are widely believed to be more environmentally favourable as they come from a renewable resource and are biodegradable. As Watson has noted:
One of the most popular natural fibres is cotton. This is viewed by many to be environmentally benign. Cotton features strongly in the proliferation of articles since the late '80s supporting claims that "natural is best" . Yet, few people know cotton is, on certain criteria, actually the most polluting product 10. It is estimated that every year in the 3rd World, of the 300 million kg of pesticides used, half is used on cotton 11. By contrast little ecological support has been offered to synthetic and chemically based products. Nevertheless it is both naive and counterproductive to say one is better than the other. Both natural and man-made fibres have a part to play in the whole of the textile industry.
Environmental damage caused by cotton production has led to a number of alternatives such as unbleached cotton, 'green' cotton 12 and naturally coloured cotton 13. We have also seen the revival of old traditions in the cultivation of hemp, nettle and peat fibres. Currently new processes for the recycling of cellulosics and synthetics are being developed, opening the path to new design ideas and new aesthetic values. An interesting development is the production of synthetic fibres made from recycled PET plastic bottles. There is growing interest in the marketing potential of recycled products, particularly in the active sportswear market. Although these developments highlight some of the pollution problems, it is still very much a 'niche' market and barely impinges upon the wider problems. If we take organic cotton as an example, it is only grown in very small quantities and the costs of production are double that of standard cotton.
It can be argued that a situation must arise where the notion of 'green textiles' no longer exists,in which all textiles would cause minimum environmental damage. In the long run this requires producers and retailers, along with the designers, to work together, 'not apart as the first tentative steps appear to suggest.' 14 the textile industry From the early days of the industrial revolution, the textile industry has been seen as a major polluter of rivers .Textile effluents were generally all directed to watercourses, often with no prior treatment to remove contaminants . 'Dyehouses at one time could easily be identified by the rainbow colours drifting downstream in the rivers which many of them still use for their water supply. Or the smell of chlorine from the bleachworks. The streets of Castleford in Yorkshire were often covered in foam produced by the local scouring operations.' 15. However, in the first decade of this century local authorities encouraged industry to connect to municipal sewerage systems, wherein discharged effluent is treated together with domestic sewerage to remove contaminants before reaching water-courses. Whilst this has been an effective way of reducing traditional contaminants such as biological oxygen demand (BOD) 16 ,suspended solids and grease,17, concern has now focused on other pollutants. Due to the rapid progress in the analytical capability to measure contaminants, substances that were previously assumed absent, or which could not be measured, are now being found, and are shown to be causing significant environmental damage. Some of the current discharges from the textile industry and their downstream consequences are shown in Table 1.? opportunities for waste minimisation Waste represents loss of valuable raw materials from manufacturing and production processes .Attempts to minimise waste are already underway in some areas to achieve legislative compliance. The key reduction methods include:
There have also been improvements in relations between suppliers, processors and regulators. There is in general an improved level of environmental awareness. Whilst research is underway to find solutions that are technically, economically and environmentally feasible, many are still working in isolation.Collective approaches to problem solving across companies have remained relatively unexplored. There is still a strong element of competition and commercial sensitivity and there is no real collaboration in technical details. future considerations Future legislative action will have severe consequences for industry. This will include:
Initial results from this research reveal that the small and medium sized textile companies have largely taken a precautionary approach - reacting to legislative controls. However, the major companies are now beginning to use environmental management as 'a means of promoting their product, the company and their presence in the community.' 18 Stewart 19 argues that the corporate benefits of taking environmental issues on board are ill-defined.There may not always be clear or direct cost benefits or marketing advantages. Nevertheless there is always a positive side to projecting a good environmental image. Stewart suggests some of the benefits might include:
design and the environment In practical terms, the industry is facing public and regulatory pressures and is being forced to act. If designers are to be important in this process, they must be seen as contributors to solving prosaic problems. Designers in the future could take a leading role in integrating environmental criteria into a product's overall marketing and communication strategy. The designer is the central connection to the marketplace, acting as the bridge between the manufacturer who produces the goods and the consumer who desires them. However,if designers are to change our patterns of consumption, they need information on the environmental impact of the processes and materials they use. Whilst there is a growing body of literature concerning environmental factors in areas like product design, mechanical engineering, architecture and packaging design, it is difficult to find equivalent information on the environmental impacts of yarn and fabric manufacture.Correspondingly,there is little on the possible role of the fashion/textile designer in helping to control pollution. Published material which is available is neither easily accessible 20,nor well structured nor adequately cross-referenced 21. Because the subject is so new, there is little quantitative or qualitative data. Making authoritative product comparisons is difficult if not impossible. Designers need to be able to identify and assess stages in the design process that impact significantly on the environment and to be aware of appropriate changes in materials, processes and disposal routes. The design process is presently divorced from the constraints imposed on manufacturers by the regulators 22 and several designers commented they had little or no knowledge of environmental implications of their design decisions and fabric specifications :
Photos Devore velvet dress, Krizia. Devored/bleached velvet dress, Helen Storey. Traditional design training looks at fibre blends, fabric weights, colour, pattern and finishing types. Designers explore techniques to create new patterns, new hand and finishing processes for a product. Environmental issues will make designing much more complex because it requires a more thorough knowledge of production processes than ever before. Some of the major problems are due to the complexities of the textile processing chain. Understanding the impacts of raw materials, use of chemical substances, processing and production methods requires a high degree of technical knowledge:
This scrutiny of materials and processes means challenging and extending the designer's role. The designer can no longer only be interested in the colours which will sell, in creating the right look for the season. They must begin to evaluate more critically. What impact does this colour have on the environment? What process is used to produce the fabric? Interestingly, whilst there is some evidence of growing environmental concern amongst designers, there appears to have been little action. Many believe that:
new design values There is a need to develop a broader more holistic view which embraces ethical, environmental and social concerns. Designers will require new tools and techniques to assess and reduce the environmental impact of their decisions. Such approaches might include:
education curriculum Including environmental decisions within the design process can only be achieved by refocusing the designers perceptions. 31 This will require changing the way designers are educated, to ensure design decisions are made within a framework of ecological sustainability.There is a real need to examine present design education programmes in order to discover what changes are needed to facilitate the designer contribution. Designers will need to understand the environmental impact of their products, processes, materials and technologies, so that we can begin to develop innovative solutions that satisfy environmental and social needs. Environmental education is now an important component of primary and secondary education, creating a more environmentally conscious generation who are better informed than their parents. The students of today are the professional designers of tomorrow and design colleges are increasingly taking environmental issues on board in relevant and interesting ways. Photos. Design through Recycling - Textiles and Fashion students are encouraged to incorporate recycled materials into their work. Manchester Metropolitan University References 1: The Water Act, 1989, The Environmental Protection
Act (EPA) 1990, and 1995 2: Cooper, P. Dr., edited by, (1995) Colour in
Dyehouse Effluent. Chapter 2, p22. The Society of Dyers
and Colourists, Bradford. 3: Cooper, P. Dr., (1993) Consequences of UK and EC
Environmental Legislation on Textile Finishing. Journal
of the Textile Institute, 84, No 4, Textile Institute,
p554 4: Watson, J. (1991) Textiles and the
Environment. Economist Intelligence Unit, Special report 5: op cit 6: Haggard, C. (1989) Green the Colour of Money, Fashion
Weekly, Nov 9 7: Phospheric stabilisers are used to break in dirt in
fabrics and if too much is discharged into the effluent
this can lead to the process of 'eutrophication'. Water
becomes enriched by nutrients such as phosphorous,
nitrogen and carbon and a solid green layer of algae
forms on the surface which starves that part of the
waterway of oxygen, killing all river life in this area 8: Demos, (1994), Textile Finishers' Executive
Summary 9: Watson J.(1991) op cit. 10: Holme, I. Dr., and Hansen, J. (1993) Eco-Label Criteria for Textile
Products: Bed-linen and T-shirts 11: Dinham, (1992) Cotton, Pesticides and the Global
Economy. Pesticides Campaigner, Vol 2, No2, May, p1 12: green cotton is grown without the use artificial
fertilisers, chemical pesticides and defoliant sprays. 13: naturally coloured cotton is organically grown in shades of
brown and green 14: Watson J. (1991) op cit 15: Greenwood, P. (1991) How Green are cotton and
linen? Textiles magazine, No3 p22 16: measure used to assess the
pollution caused
by discharges into water which are non-biodegradable or
very slowly biodegradable 17: Cooper, P., Dr (1992) op cit. p556 18: Winters, G. (1988) Business and the
Environment - A handbook of industrial ecology.
McGraw-Hill. 19: Stewart, N. (1995) Managing the Environment.
Knitting Industries' Federation Seminar, Nov 8, Derby. 20: Madge, P., Dr. (1993) Material World, Ecological Textiles
Conference, University of Central England. March 2. 21: Hinnells, M. (1993) Environmental Factors in Product
Development: How to Gather the Evidence? Design Studies,
Vol 14, No 4, October 22: Demos, op cit 23: Smith, C. (1994) Textile Finishers'
Association, personal communication 24: (1995) personal communication, Design Director, textile company A 27: Hazel, B (1993) Textile Finishers'
Association, personal communication 28: Hinnells, M., Dr. (1995) Evaluation of Environmental Impacts
of Domestic Appliances and Implications for Public
Policy. PhD Thesis, Institute of Advanced Studies, the
Manchester Metropolitan University 30: Van Dijk, G (1995) Greening of Products.
Presentation at 'Towards Sustainable Design' conference,
The Centre for Sustainable Design, The Surrey Inst. of
Art and Design, Farnham. 6 July 31: Graedel and Allenby
(1995) Industrial
Ecology. AT & T Publications textile Products:
Bed-linen and T-shirts
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